Pedagogy+of+the+Oppressed,+C1

Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1970, Chapter 1

 * [|Paulo Freire, 1921-1997] **

**Pedagogy of the Oppressed ** //Chapter 1 // While the problem of humanization has always, from an axiological point of view; been humankind's central problem, it now takes on the character of an inescapable concern.1 Concern for humanization leads at once to the recognition of dehumanization, not only as an ontological possibility but as an historical reality And as an individual perceives the extent of dehu­manization, he or she may ask if humanization is a viable possibility. Within history in concrete, objective contexts, both humanization and dehumanization are possibilities for a person as an uncompleted being conscious of their incompletion.

But while both humanization and dehumanization are real alter­natives, only the first is the people's vocation. This vocation is con­stantly negated, yet it is affirmed by that very negation. It is thwarted by injustice, exploitation, oppression, and the violence of the oppressors; it is affirmed by the yearning of the oppressed for freedom and justice, and by their struggle to recover their lost hu­manity.

Dehumanization, which marks not only those whose humanity has been stolen, but also (though in a different way) those who have stolen it, is a //distortion// of the vocation of becoming more frilly human. This distortion occurs within history; but it is not an histori­cal vocation. Indeed, to admit of dehumanization as an historical vocation would lead either to cynicism or total despair. The struggle for humanization, for the emancipation of labor, for the overcoming of alienation, for the affirmation of men and women as persons would be meaningless. This struggle is possible only because dehumaniza­tion, although a concrete historical fact, is //not// a given destiny but the result of an unjust order that engenders violence in the oppres­sors, which in turn dehumanizes the oppressed.

Because it is a distortion of being more fully human, sooner or later being less human leads the oppressed to struggle against those who made them so. In order for this struggle to have meaning, the oppressed must not in seeking to regain their humanity (which is a way to create it), become in turn oppressors of the oppressors, but rather restorers of the humanity of both.

This, then, is the great humanistic and historical task of the op­pressed: to liberate themselves and their oppressors as well. The oppressors, who oppress, exploit, and rape by virtue of their power; cannot find in this power the strength to liberate either the op­pressed or themselves. Only power that springs from the weakness of the oppressed will be sufficiently strong to free both. Any attempt to "soften" the power of the oppressor in deference to the weakness of the oppressed almost always manifests itself in the form of false generosity; indeed, the attempt never goes beyond this. In order to have the continued opportunity to express their "generosity," the oppressors must perpetuate injustice as well. An unjust social order is the permanent fount of this "generosity" which is nourished by death, despair, and poverty. That is why the dispensers of false generosity become desperate at the slightest threat to its source.

True generosity consists precisely in fighting to destroy the causes which nourish false charity False charity constrains the fearful and subdued, the "rejects of life” to extend their trembling hands. True generosity lies in striving so that these hands - whether of individ­uals or entire peoples - need be extended less and less in supplica­tion, so that more and more they become human hands which work and, working, transform the world.

This lesson and this apprenticeship must come, however, from the oppressed themselves and from those who are truly solidary with them. As individuals or as peoples, by fighting for the restoration of their humanity they will be attempting the restoration of true generosity. Who are better prepared than the oppressed to understand the terrible significance of an oppressive society? Who suffer the effects of oppression more than the oppressed? Who can better understand the necessity of liberation? They will not gain this libera­tion by chance but through the praxis of their quest for it, through their recognition of the necessity to fight for it. And this fight, because of the purpose given it by the oppressed, will actually consti­tute an act of love opposing the lovelessness which lies at the heart of the oppressors' violence, lovelessness even when clothed in false generosity.

But almost always, during the initial stage of the struggle, the oppressed, instead of striving for liberation, tend themselves to be­come oppressors, or "sub-oppressors." The very structure of their thought has been conditioned by the contradictions of the concrete, existential situation by which they were shaped. Their ideal is to be men; but for them, to be men is to be oppressors. This is their model of humanity. This phenomenon derives from the fact that the oppressed, at a certain moment of their existential experience, adopt an attitude of "adhesion" to the oppressor. Under these circum­stances they cannot "consider" him sufficiently clearly to objectivize him - to discover him "outside" themselves. This does not necessar­ily mean that the oppressed are unaware that they are downtrodden. But their perception of themselves as oppressed is impaired by their submersion in the reality of oppression. At this level, their perception of themselves as opposites of the oppressor does not yet signify engagement in a struggle to overcome the contradiction;2 the one pole aspires not to liberation, but to identification with its opposite pole.

In this situation the oppressed do not see the "new man as the person to be born from the resolution of this contradiction, as op­pression gives way to liberation. For them, the new man or woman themselves become oppressors. Their vision of the newman or woman is individualistic; because of their identification with the oppressor they have no consciousness of themselves as persons or as members of an oppressed class. It is not to become free that they want agrarian reform, but in order to acquire land and thus become landowners-or; more precisely, bosses over other workers. It is a rare peasant who, once "promoted" to overseer, does not become more of a tyrant towards his former comrades than the owner himself. This is because the context of the peasant's situation, that is, oppression, remains unchanged. In this example, the overseer, in order to make sure of his job, must be as tough as the owner - and more so. Thus is illustrated our previous assertion that during the initial stage of their struggle the oppressed find in the oppressor their model of "manhood."

Even revolution, which transforms a concrete situation of oppression by establishing the process of liberation, must confront thus phenomenon. Many of the oppressed who directly or indirectly par­ticipate in revolution intend -conditioned by the myths of the old order - to make it their private revolution. The shadow of their former oppressor is still cast over them.

The "fear of freedom" which afflicts the oppressed,3 a fear which may equally well lead them to desire the role of oppressor or bind them to the role of oppressed, should be examined. One of the basic elements of the relationship between oppressor and oppressed is //prescription.// Every prescription represents the imposition of one individual's choice upon another, transforming the consciousness of the person prescribed to into one that conforms with the pre­scriber's consciousness. Thus, the behavior of the oppressed is a prescribed behavior, following as it does the guidelines of the op­pressor.

The oppressed, having internalized the image of the oppressor and adopted his guidelines, are fearful of freedom. Freedom would require them to eject this image and replace it with autonomy and responsibility. Freedom is acquired by conquest, not by gift. It must be pursued constantly and responsibly. Freedom is not an ideal located outside of man; nor is it an idea which becomes myth. It is rather the indispensable condition for the quest for human com­pletion.

To surmount the situation of oppression, people must first criti­cally recognize its causes, so that through transforming action they can create a new situation, one which makes possible the pursuit of a fuller humanity. But the struggle to be more fully human has already begun in the authentic struggle to transform the situation. Although the situation of oppression is a dehumanized and dehu­manizing totality affecting both the oppressors and those whom they oppress, it is the latter who must, from their stifled humanity, wage for both the struggle for a fuller humanity; the oppressor, who is himself dehumanized because he dehumanizes others, is unable to lead this struggle.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">However, the oppressed, who have adapted to the structure of domination in which they are immersed, and have become resigned to it, are inhibited from waging the struggle for freedom so long as they feel incapable of running the risks it requires. Moreover; their struggle for freedom threatens not only the oppressor; but also their own oppressed comrades who are fearful of still greater repression. When they discover within themselves the yearning to be free, they perceive that this yearning can be transformed into reality only when the same yearning is aroused in their comrades. But while dominated by the fear of freedom they refuse to appeal to others, or to listen to the appeals of others, or even to the appeals of their own conscience. They prefer gregariousness to authentic comrade­ship; they prefer the security of conformity with their state of unfree­dom to the creative communion produced by freedom and even the very pursuit of freedom.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The oppressed suffer from the duality which has established itself in their innermost being. They discover that without freedom they cannot exist authentically. Yet, although they desire authentic exis­tence, they fear it. They are at one and the same time themselves and the oppressor whose consciousness they have internalized. The conflict lies in the choice between being wholly themselves or being divided; between ejecting the oppressor within or not ejecting them; between human solidarity or alienation; between following prescriptions or having choices; between being spectators or actors; between acting or having the illusion of acting through the action of the oppressors; between speaking out or being silent, castrated in their power to create and re-create, in their power to transform the world. This is the tragic dilemma of the oppressed which their education must take into account.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">This book will present some aspects of what the writer has termed the pedagogy of the oppressed, a pedagogy which must be forged //with,// not for, the oppressed (whether individuals or peoples) in the incessant struggle to regain their humanity. This pedagogy makes oppression and its causes objects of reflection by the oppressed, and from that reflection will come their necessary engagement in the struggle for their liberation. And in the struggle this pedagogy will be made and remade.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The central problem is this: How can the oppressed, as divided, unauthentic beings, participate in developing the pedagogy of their liberation? Only as they discover themselves to be "hosts" of the oppressor can they contribute to the midwifery of their liberating pedagogy. As long as they live in the duality in which //to be// is //to be like,// and //to be like// is //to be like the oppressor,// this contribution is impossible. The pedagogy of the oppressed is an instrument for their critical discovery that both they and their oppressors are mani­festations of dehumanization.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Liberation is thus a childbirth, and a painful one. The man or woman who emerges is a new person, viable only as the oppressor - oppressed contradiction is superseded by the humanization of all people. Or to put it another way the solution of this contradiction is born in the labor which brings into the world this new being: no longer oppressor nor longer oppressed, but human in the process of achieving freedom.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">This solution cannot be achieved in idealistic terms. In order fbi the oppressed to be able to wage the struggle for their liberation they must perceive the reality of oppression not as a closed world from which there is no exit, but as a limiting situation which they can transform. This perception is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for liberation; it must become the motivating force for liberating action. Nor does the discovery by the oppressed that they exist in dialectical relationship to the oppressor, as his antithesis that without them the oppressor could not exist (4) - in itself constitute liberation. The oppressed can overcome the contradiction in which they are caught only when this perception enlists them in the struggle to free themselves.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The same is true with respect to the individual oppressor as person. Discovering himself to be an oppressor may cause considerable anguish, but it does not necessarily lead to solidarity with the oppressed. Rationalizing his guilt through paternalistic treatment of the oppressed, all the while holding them fast in a position of dependence, will not do. Solidarity requires that one enter into the situation of those with whom one is solidary; it is a radical posture. If what characterizes the oppressed is their subordination to the consciousness of the master, as Hegel affirms,5 true solidarity with the oppressed means fighting at their side to transform the objective reality which has made them these "beings for another”. The oppres­sor is solidary with the oppressed only when he stops regarding the oppressed as an abstract category and sees them as persons who have been unjustly dealt with, deprived of their voice, cheated in the sale of their labor -when he stops making pious, sentimental, and individualistic gestures and risks an act of love. True solidarity is found only in the plenitude of this act of love, in its existentiality in its praxis. To affirm that men and women are persons and as persons should be free, and yet to do nothing tangible to make this affirmation a reality, is a farce.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Since it is a concrete situation that the oppressor-oppressed con­tradiction is established, the resolution of this contradiction must be //objectively// verifiable. Hence, the radical requirement - both for the individual who discovers himself or herself to be an oppressor and for the oppressed - that the concrete situation which begets oppression must be transformed.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">To present this radical demand for the objective transformation of reality to combat subjectivist immobility which would divert the recognition of oppression into patient waiting for oppression to dis­appear by itself is not to dismiss the role of subjectivity in the struggle to change structures. On the contrary one cannot conceive of objectivity without subjectivity. Neither can exist without the other, nor can they be dichotomized. The separation of objectivity from subjectivity, the denial of the latter when analyzing reality or acting upon it, is objectivism. On the other hand, the denial of objectivity in analysis or action, resulting in a subjectivism which leads to solipsistic positions, denies action itself by denying objec­tive reality. Neither objectivism nor subjectivism, nor yet psycholo­gism is propounded here, but rather subjectivity and objectivity in constant dialectical relationship.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">To deny the importance of subjectivity in the process of transforming the world and history is naive and simplistic. It is to admit the impossible: a world without people. This objectivistic position is as ingenuous as that of subjectivism, which postulates people without a world. World and human beings do not exist apart from each other, they exist in constant interaction. Man does not espouse such a dichotomy; nor does any other critical, realistic thinker. What Marx criticized and scientifically destroyed was not subjectivity, but subjectivism and psychologism. Just as objective social reality exists not by chance, but as the product of human action, so it is not transformed by chance. If humankind produce social reality (which in the "inversion of the praxis" turns back upon them and conditions them), then transforming that reality is an historical task, a task for humanity.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Reality which becomes oppressive results in the contradistinction of men as oppressors and oppressed The latter, whose task it is to struggle for their liberation together with those who show true solidarity, must acquire a critical awareness of oppression through the praxis of this struggle. One of the gravest obstacles to the achievement of liberation is that oppressive reality absorbs those within it and thereby acts to submerge human beings' consiousness.6 Functionally, oppression is domesticating. To no longer be prey to its force, one must emerge from it and turn upon it. This can be done only by means of the praxis: reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it. Hay que hacer al opresion real todavia mas opresiva anadiendo a aquella la //conciencia// de la opresion haciendo la infamia todavia mas infamante, al pregonar1a.**7** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Making "real oppression more oppressive still by adding to it the realization of oppression" corresponds to the dialectical relation between the subjective and the objective. Only in this interdepen­dence is an authentic praxis possible, without which it is impossible to resolve the oppressor-oppressed contradiction. To achieve this goal, the oppressed must confront reality critically, simultaneously objectifying and acting upon that reality. A mere perception of real­ity not followed by this critical intervention will not lead to a transformation of objective reality -precisely because it is not a true perception. This is the case of a purely subjectivist perception by someone who forsakes objective reality and creates a false substitute.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">A different type of false perception occurs when a change in objec­tive reality would threaten the individual or class interests of the perceiver. In the first instance, there is no critical intervention in reality because that reality is fictitious; there is none in the second instance because intervention would contradict the class interests of the perceiver In the latter case the tendency of the perceiver is to behave "neurotically." The fact exists; but both the fact and what may result from it may be prejudicial to the person. Thus it becomes necessary not precisely to deny the fact, but to "see it differently." This rationalization as a defense mechanism coincides in the end wit subjectivism. A fact which is not denied but whose truths are rationalized loses its objective base. It ceases to be concrete and becomes a myth created in defense of the class of the perceiver.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Herein lies one of the reasons for the prohibitions and the diffi­culties (to be. discussed at length in Chapter 4) designed to dissuade the people from critical intervention in reality. The oppressor knows full well that this intervention would not be to his interest. What is to his interest is for the people to continue in a state of submersion, impotent in the face of oppressive reality. Of relevance here is Lu­kacs' warning to the revolutionary party: ... il doit, pour employer les mots de Marx, expliquer aux masses leur propre action non seulement afin d'assurer la conti­nuite des experiences revolutionnaires du proletariat, mais aussi d'activer consciemment le developpement ulterieur de ces experiences.8 <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">In affirming this necessity, Lukacs is unquestionably posing the problem of critical intervention. “To explain to the masses their own action" is to clarify and illuminate that action, both regarding its relationship to the objective acts by which it was prompted, and regarding its purposes. The more the people unveil this challenging reality which is to be the object of their transforming action, the more critically they enter that reality. In this way they are "con­sciously activating the subsequent development of their experi­ences." There would be no human action if there were no objective reality; no world to be the "not I" of the person and to challenge them; just as there would be no human action if humankind were not a “project" if he or she were not able to transcend himself or herself, if one were not able to perceive reality and understand it in order to transform it.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">In dialectical thought, world and action are intimately interdepen­dent. But action is human only when it is not merely an occupation but also a preoccupation, that is, when it is not dichotomized from reflection. Reflection, which is essential to action, is implicit in Lu­kacs' requirement of "explaining to the masses their own action," just as it is implicit in the purpose he attributes to this explanation: that of "consciously activating the subsequent development of expe­rience."

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">For us, however; the requirement is seen not in terms of ex­plaining to, but rather dialoguing with the people about their ac­tions. In any event, no reality transforms itself,9 and the duty which Lukacs ascribes to the revolutionary party of "explaining to the masses their own action" coincides with our affirmation of the need for the critical intervention of the people in reality through the praxis. The pedagogy of the oppressed, which is the pedagogy of people engaged in the fight for their own liberation, has its roots here. And those who recognize, or begin to recognize, themselves as oppressed must be among the developers of this pedagogy. No pedagogy which is truly liberating can remain distant from the op-pressed by treating them as unfortunates and by presenting for their emulation models from among the oppressors. The oppressed must be their own example in the struggle for their redemption.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The pedagogy of the oppressed, animated by authentic, humanist (not humanitarian) generosity, presents itself as a pedagogy of humankind. Pedagogy which begins with the egoistic interests of the oppressors (an egoism cloaked in the false generosity of paternal­ism) and makes of the oppressed the objects of its humanitarianism, itself maintains and embodies oppression. It is an instrument of dehumanization. This is why, as we affirmed earlier, the pedagogy of the oppressed cannot be developed or practiced by the oppres­sor. It would be a contradiction in terms if the oppressors not only defended but actually implemented a liberating education.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">But if the implementation of a liberating education requires politi­cal power and the oppressed have none, how then is it possible to carry out the pedagogy of the oppressed prior to the revolution? This is a question of the greatest importance, the reply to which is at least tentatively outlined in Chapter 4. One aspect of the reply is to be found in the distinction between systematic //education,// which can only be changed by political power, and //educational proj­ects,// which should be carried out //with// the oppressed in the process of organizing them.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The pedagogy of the oppressed, as a humanist and libertarian pedagogy, has two distinct stages. In the first, the oppressed unveil the world of oppression and through the praxis commit themselves to its transformation. In the second stage, in which the reality of oppression has already been transformed, this pedagogy ceases to belong to the oppressed and becomes a pedagogy of all people in the process of permanent liberation. In both stages, it is always through action in depth that the culture of domination is culturally confronted.10 In the first stage this confrontation occurs through the change in the way the oppressed perceive the world of oppression; in the second stage, through the expulsion of the myths created and developed in the old order, which like specters haunt the new structure emerging from the revolutionary transformation.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The pedagogy of the first stage must deal with the problem of the oppressed consciousness and the oppressor consciousness, the problem of men and women who oppress and men and women who suffer oppression. It must take into account their behavior; their view of the world, and their ethics. A particular problem is the duality of the oppressed: they are contradictory, divided beings, shaped by and existing in a concrete situation of oppression and violence.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Any situation in which "A" objectively exploits "B" or hinders his and her pursuit of self-affirmation as a responsible person is one of oppression. Such a situation in itself constitutes violence even when sweetened by false generosity; because it interferes with the individ­ual's ontological and historical vocation to be more fully human. With the establishment of a relationship of oppression, violence has //already// begun. Never in history has violence been initiated by the oppressed. How could they be the initiators, if they themselves are the result of violence? How could they be the sponsors of something whose objective inauguration called forth their existence as oppressed? There would be no oppressed had there been no prior situation of violence to establish their subjugation.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Violence is initiated by those who oppress, who exploit, who fail to recognize others as persons - not by those who are oppressed, exploited, and unrecognized. It is not the unloved who initiate disaffection, but those who cannot love because they love only them­selves. It is not the helpless, subject to terror, who initiate terror, but the violent, who with their power create the concrete situation which begets the "rejects of life." It is not the tyrannized who initiate despotism, but the tyrants. It is not the despised who initiate hatred, but those who despise. It is not those whose humanity is denied them who negate humankind, but those who denied that humanity (thus negating their own as well). Force is used not by those who have become weak under the preponderance of the strong, but by the strong who have emasculated them.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">For the oppressors, however, it is always the oppressed (whom they obviously never call "the oppressed" but - depending on whether they are fellow countrymen or not - "those people' or "the blind and envious masses" or "savages" or "natives" or "subversives”) who are disaffected, who are “violent," “barbaric," "wicked," or "fe­rocious" when they react to the violence of the oppressors.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Yet it is - paradoxical though it may seem - precisely in the response of the oppressed to the violence of their oppressors that a gesture of love may be found. Consciously or unconsciously, the act of rebellion by the oppressed (an act which is always, or nearly always, as violent as the initial violence of the oppressors) can initiate love. Whereas the violence of the oppressors prevents the oppressed from being fully human, the response of the latter to this violence is grounded in the desire to pursue the right to be human. As the oppressors dehumanize others and violate their rights, they them­selves also become dehumanized. As the oppressed, fighting to be human, take away the oppressors' power to dominate and suppress, they restore to the oppressors the humanity they had lost in the exercise of oppression.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">It is only the oppressed who, by freeing themselves, can free their oppressors. The latter, as an oppressive class, can free neither others nor themselves. It is therefore essential that the oppressed wage the struggle to resolve the contradiction in which they are caught; and the contradiction will be resolved by the appearance of the new man: neither oppressor nor oppressed, but man in the process of liberation. If the goal of the oppressed is to become fully human, they will not achieve their goal by merely reversing the terms of the contradiction, by simply changing poles.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">This may seem simplistic; it is not. Resolution of the oppressor-oppressed contradiction indeed implies the disappearance of the oppressors as a dominant class. However, the restraints imposed by the former oppressed on their oppressors, so that the latter cannot reassume their former position, do not constitute //oppression.// An act is oppressive only when it prevents people from being more fully human. Accordingly, these necessary restraints do not //in themselves// signify that yesterday's oppressed have become today's oppressors. Acts which prevent the restoration of the oppressive regime cannot be compared with those which create and maintain it, cannot be compared with those by which a few men and women deny the majority the right to be human.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">However, the moment the new regime hardens into a dominating “bureaucracy”11 the humanist dimension of the struggle is lost and it is no longer possible to speak of liberation. Hence our insistence that the authentic solution of the oppressor-oppressed contradiction does not lie in a mere reversal of position, in moving from one pole to the other. Nor does it lie in the replacement of the former oppressors with new ones who continue to subjugate the op­pressed - all in the name of their liberation.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">But even when the contradiction is resolved authentically by a new situation established by the liberated laborers, the former op­pressors do not feel liberated. On the contrary, they genuinely con­sider themselves to be oppressed. Conditioned by the experience of oppressing others, any situation other than their former seems to them like oppression. Formerly, they could eat, dress, wear shoes, be educated, travel, and hear Beethoven; while millions did not eat, had no clothes or shoes, neither studied nor traveled, much less listened to Beethoven. Any restriction on this way of life, in the name of the rights of the community, appears to the former oppres­sors as a profound violation of their individual right - although they had no respect for the millions who suffered and died of hunger, pain, sorrow, and despair. For the oppressors, "human beings" refers only to themselves; other people are "things." For the oppressors, there exists only one right: their right to live in peace, over against the right, not always even recognized, but simply conceded, of the oppressed to survival. Arid they make this concession only because the existence of the oppressed is necessary to their own existence.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">This behavior, this way of understanding the world and people (which necessarily makes the oppressors resist the installation of a new regime) is explained by their experience as a dominant class. Once a situation of violence and oppression has been established, it engenders an entire way of life and behavior for those caught up in it - oppressors and oppressed alike. Both are submerged in this situation, and both bear the marks of oppression. Analysis of existen­tial situations of oppression reveals that their inception lay in an act of violence - initiated by those with power. This violence, as a process, is perpetuated from generation to generation of oppressors, who become its heirs and are shaped in its climate. This climate creates in the oppressor a strongly possessive consciousness - possessive of the world and of men and women. Apart from direct, concrete, material possession of the world and of people, the oppres­sor consciousness could not understand itself - could not even exist. Fromm said of this consciousness that, without such possession, "it would lose contact with the world" The oppressor consciousness tends to transform everything surrounding it into an object of its domination. The earth, property, production, the creations of peo­ple, people themselves, time - everything is reduced to the status of objects at its disposal.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">In their unrestrained eagerness to possess, the oppressors de­velop the conviction that it is possible for them to transform everything into objects of their purchasing power; hence their strictly materialistic concept of existence. Money is the measure of all things, and profit the primary goal. For the oppressors, what is worthwhile is to have more - always more - even at the cost of the oppressed having less or having nothing. For them, //to be// is //to have// and to be the class of the “haves.”

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">As beneficiaries of a situation of oppression, the oppressors cannot perceive that if //having// is a condition of //being,// it is a necessary condition for all women and men. This is why their generosity is false. Humanity is a “thing” and they possess it as an exclusive right, as inherited property. To the oppressor consciousness, the humanization of the "others," of the people, appears not as the pur­suit of full humanity; but as subversion.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The oppressors do not perceive their monopoly on //having more// as a privilege which dehumanizes others and themselves. They cannot see that, in the egoistic pursuit of //having// as a possessing class, they suffocate in their own possessions and no longer //are;// they merely //have.// For them, //having more// is an inalienable right, a right they acquired through their own "effort" with their "courage to take risks." If others do not have more, it is because they are incompetent and lazy; and worst of all is their unjustifiable ingratitude towards the "generous gestures" of the dominant class. Precisely because they are "ungrateful" and "envious," the oppressed are regarded as potential enemies who must be watched.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">It could not he otherwise. If the humanization of the oppressed signifies subversion, so also does their freedom; hence the necessity for constant control. And the more the oppressors control the op­pressed, the more they change them into apparently inanimate "things." This tendency of the oppressor consciousness to “in-ani­mate" everything and everyone it encounters, in its eagerness to possess, unquestionably corresponds with a tendency to sadism.  The pleasure in complete domination over another person (or other animate creature) is the very essence of the sadistic drive. Another way of formulating the same thought is to say that the aim of sadism is to transform a man into a thing, something animate into something inanimate, since by complete and abso­lute control the living loses one essential quality of life - freedom.12  <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Sadistic love is a perverted love - a love of death, not of life. One of the characteristics of the oppressor consciousness and its necrophilic view of the world is thus sadism. As the oppressor consciousness, in order to dominate, tries to deter the drive to search, the restless­ness, and the creative power which characterize life, it kills life. More and more, the oppressors are using science and technology as unquestionably powerful instruments for their purpose: the mainte­nance of the oppressive order through manipulation and repres­sion.13 The oppressed, as objects, as "things," have no purposes except those their oppressors prescribe for them.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Given the preceding context, another issue of indubitable impor­tance arises: the fact that certain members of the oppressor class join the oppressed in their struggle for liberation, thus moving from one pole of the contradiction to the other. Theirs is a fundamental role, and has been so throughout the history of this struggle. It happens, however, that as they cease to be exploiters or indifferent spectators or simply the heirs of exploitation and move to the side of the exploited, they almost always bring with them the marks of their origin: their prejudices and their deformations, which include a lack of confidence in the people's ability to think, to want, and to know. Accordingly these adherents to the people's cause constantly run the risk of falling into a type of generosity as malefic as that of the oppressors. The generosity of the oppressors is nourished by an unjust order, which must be maintained in order to justify that generosity. Our converts, on the other hand, truly desire to trans­form the unjust order; but because of their background they believe that they must be the executors of the transformation. They talk about the people, but they do not trust them; and trusting the people is the indispensable precondition for revolutionary change. A real humanist can be identified more by his trust in the people, which engages him in their struggle, than by a thousand actions in their favor without that trust.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Those who authentically commit themselves to the people must re-examine themselves constantly. This conversion is so radical as not to allow of ambiguous behavior. To affirm this commitment but to consider oneself the proprietor of revolutionary wisdom – which must then be given to (or imposed on) the people - is to retain the old ways. The man or woman who proclaims devotion to the cause of liberation yet is unable to enter into //communion// with the people, whom he or she continues to regard as totally ignorant, is grievously self-deceived. The convert who approaches the people but feels alarm at each step they take, each doubt they express, and each suggestion they offer; and attempts to impose his "status”, remains nostalgic towards his origins.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Conversion to the people requires a profound rebirth. Those who undergo it must take on a new form of existence; they can no longer remain as they were. Only through comradeship with the oppressed can the converts understand their characteristic ways of living and behaving, which in diverse moments reflect the structure of domination. One of these characteristics is the previously mentioned exis­tential duality of the oppressed, who are at the same time themselves and the oppressor whose image they have internalized. Accordingly, until they concretely "discover" their oppressor and in turn their own consciousness, they nearly always express fatalistic attitudes towards their situation. The peasant begins to get courage to overcome his dependence when he realizes that he is dependent. Until then, he goes along with the boss and says "what can I do? I'm only a peasant."14 <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">When superficially analyzed, this fatalism is sometimes interpreted as a docility that is a trait of national character. Fatalism in the guise of docility is the fruit of an historical and sociological situation, not an essential characteristic of a people's behavior. It almost always is related to the power of destiny or fate or fortune - inevitable forc­es - or to a distorted view of God. Under the sway of magic and myth, the oppressed (especially the peasants, who are almost sub­merged in nature)15 see their suffering, the fruit of exploitation, as the will of God, as if God were the creator of this “organized disorder."

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Submerged in reality, the oppressed cannot perceive clearly the "order" which serves the interests of the oppressors whose image they have internalized. Chafing under the restrictions of this order, they often manifest a type of horizontal violence, striking out at their own comrades for the pettiest reasons. The colonized man will first manifest this aggressiveness which has been deposited in his bones against his own people. This is the period when the niggers beat each other up, and the police and magistrates do not know which way to turn when faced with the astonishing waves of crime in North Africa. . . . While the settler or the policeman has the right the livelong day to strike the native, to insult him and to make him crawl to them, you will see the native reaching fbr his knife at the slightest hostile or aggressive glance cast on him by another native; for the last resort of the native is to defend his personality vis-a-vis his brother. 16 <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">It is possible that in this behavior they are once more manifesting their duality. Because the oppressor exists within their oppressed comrades, when they attack those comrades they are indirectly at­tacking the oppressor as well.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">On the other hand, at a certain point in their existential experi­ence the oppressed feel an irresistible attraction towards the oppres­sors and their way of life. Sharing this way of life becomes an overpowering aspiration. In their alienation, the oppressed want at any cost to resemble the oppressors, to imitate them, to follow them. This phenomenon is especially prevalent in the middle-class op­pressed, who yearn to be equal to the "eminent” men and women of the upper class. Albert Memmi, in an exceptional analysis of the "colonized mentality," refers to the contempt he felt towards the colonizer, mixed with "passionate" attraction towards him.  How could the colonizer look after his workers while periodically gunning down a crowd of colonized? How could the colonized deny himself so cruelly yet make such excessive demands? How could he hate the colonizers and yet admire them so passionately? (I too felt this admiration in spite of myself.)17  <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Self-depreciation is another characteristic of the oppressed, which derives from their internalization of the opinion the oppressors hold of them. So often do they hear that they are good for nothing, know nothing and are incapable of learning anything - that they are sick, lazy, and unproductive - that in the end they become convinced of their own unfitness. The peasant feels inferior to the boss because the boss seems to be the only one who knows things and is able to run things. **18** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">They call themselves ignorant and say the "professor" is the one who has knowledge and to whom they should listen. The criteria of knowledge imposed upon them are the conventional ones. "Why don't you," said a peasant participating in a culture circle,19 "explain the pictures first? That way it'll take less time and won't give us a headache."

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Almost never do they realize that they, too, “know things" they have learned in their relations with the world and with other women and men. Given the circumstances which have produced their duality, it is only natural that they distrust themselves.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Not infrequently, peasants in educational projects begin to discuss a generative theme in a lively manner, then stop suddenly and say to the educator: "Excuse us, we ought to keep quiet and let you talk You are the one who knows, we don't know anything." They often insist that there is no difference between them and the ani­mals; when they do admit a difference, it favors the animals. “They are freer than we are.”

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">It is striking, however, to observe how this self-depreciation changes with the first changes in the situation of oppression. I heard a peasant leader say in an //asentamiento//20 meeting, "They used to say we were unproductive because we were lazy and drunkards. All lies. Now that we are respected as men, we're going to show every­one that we were never drunkards or lazy. We were exploited!"

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">As long as their ambiguity persists, the oppressed are reluctant to resist, and totally lack confidence in themselves. They have a diffuse, magical belief in the invulnerability and power of the oppres­sor.21 The magical force of the landowner's power holds particular sway in the rural areas. A sociologist friend of mine tells of a group of armed peasants in a Latin American country who recently took over a latifundium. For tactical reasons, they planned to hold the landowner as a hostage. But not one peasant had the courage to guard him; his very presence was terrifying. It is also possible that the act of opposing the boss provoked guilt feelings. In truth, the boss was "inside" them.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The oppressed must see examples of the vulnerability of the op­pressor so that a contrary conviction can begin to grow within them. Until this occurs they will continue disheartened, fearful, and beaten.22 As long as the oppressed remain unaware of the causes of their condition, they fatalistically "accept" their exploitation. Fur­ther, they are apt to react in a passive and alienated manner when confronted with the necessity to struggle for their freedom and self-affirmation. Little by little, however, they tend to try out forms of rebellious action. In working towards liberation, one must neither lose sight of this passivity nor overlook the moment of awakening.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Within their unauthentic view of the world and of themselves, the oppressed feel like "things" owned by the oppressor. For the latter; //to be// is //to have//, almost always at the expense of those who have nothing. For the oppressed, at a certain point in their existential experience, //to be// is not to resemble the oppressor, but //to be under// him, to depend on him. Accordingly, the oppressed are emotionally dependent. The peasant is a dependent. He can't say what he wants. Before he discovers his dependence, he suffers. He lets off steam at home, where he shouts at his children, beats them, and despairs.He complains about his wife and thinks everything is dreadful. He doesn't let off steam with the boss because he thinks the boss is a superior being. Lots of times, the peasant gives vent to his sorrows by drinking.23 <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">This total emotional dependence can lead the oppressed to what Fromm calls necrophilic behavior: the destruction of life - their own or that of their oppressed fellows.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">It is only when the oppressed find the oppressor out and become involved in the organized struggle for their liberation that they begin to believe in themselves. This discovery cannot be purely intellec­tual but must involve action; nor can it be limited to mere activism, but must include serious reflection: only then will it be a praxis

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Critical and liberating dialogue, which presupposes action, must be carried on with the oppressed at whatever the stage of their struggle for liberation.24 The content of that dialogue can and should vary in accordance with historical conditions and the level at which the oppressed perceive reality. But to substitute monologue, slo­gans, and communiques for dialogue is to attempt to liberate the oppressed with the instruments of domestication. Attempting to liberate the oppressed without their reflective participation in the act of liberation is to treat them as objects which must be saved from a burning building; it is to lead them into the populist pitfall and transform them into masses which can be manipulated.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">At all stages of their liberation, the oppressed must see themselves as women and men engaged in the ontological and historical vocation of becoming more fully human. Reflection and action become imperative when one does not erroneously attempt to dichoto­mize the content of humanity from its historical forms.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The insistence that the oppressed engage in reflection on their concrete situation is not a call to armchair revolution. On the con­trary reflection - true reflection - leads to action. On the other hand, when the situation calls for action, that action will constitute an authentic praxis only if its consequences become the object of critical reflection. In this sense, the praxis is the new //raison d'etre// of the oppressed; and the revolution, which inaugurates the historical moment of this //raison d'etre,// is not viable apart from their concomi­tant conscious involvement. Otherwise, action is pure activism.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">To achieve this praxis, however; it is necessary to trust in the oppressed and in their ability to reason. Whoever lacks this trust will fail to initiate (or will abandon) dialogue, reflection, and commu­nication, and will fall into using slogans, communiques, monologues, and instructions. Superficial conversions to the cause of liberation carry this danger.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Political action on the side of the oppressed must be pedagogical action in the authentic sense of the word, and, therefore, action //with// the oppressed. Those who work for liberation must not take advantage of the emotional dependence of the oppressed - dependence that is the fruit of the concrete situation of domination which surrounds them and which engendered their unauthentic view of the world. Using their dependence to create still greater dependence is an oppressor tactic.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Libertarian action must recognize this dependence as a weak point and must attempt through reflection and action to transform it into independence. However, not even the best-intentioned lead­ership can bestow independence as a gift. The liberation of the oppressed is a liberation of women and men, not things. Accordingly while no one liberates himself by his own efforts alone, neither is he liberated by others. Liberation, a human phenomenon, cannot be achieved by semihumans. Any attempt to treat people as semihumans only dehumanizes them. When people are already dehuman­ized, due to the oppression they suffer; the process of their liberation must not employ the methods of dehumanization.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The correct method for a revolutionary leadership to employ in the task of liberation is, therefore, //not// "libertarian propaganda." Nor can the leadership merely "implant” in the oppressed a belief in freedom, thus thinking to win their trust. The correct method lies in dialogue. The conviction of the oppressed that they must fight for their liberation is not a gift bestowed by the revolutionary leader­ship, but the result of their own //conscientizacao.//

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The revolutionary leaders must realize that their own conviction of the necessity for struggle (an indispensable dimension of revolu­tionary wisdom) was not given to them by anyone else - if it is authentic. This conviction cannot be packaged and sold; it is reached, rather, by means of a totality of reflection and action. Only the leaders' own involvement in reality; within an historical situation, led them to criticize this situation and to wish to change it.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Likewise, the oppressed (who do not commit themselves to the struggle unless they are convinced, and who, if they do not make such a commitment, withhold the indispensable conditions for this struggle) must reach this conviction as Subjects, not as objects. They also must intervene critically in the situation which surrounds them and whose mark they bear; propaganda cannot achieve this. While the conviction of the necessity for struggle (without which the strug­gle is unfeasible) is indispensable to the revolutionary leadership (indeed, it was this conviction which constituted that leadership), it is also necessary for the oppressed. It is necessary; that is, unless one intends to carry out the transformation //for// the oppressed rather than //with// them. It is my belief that only the latter form of transfor­mation is valid.25

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The object in presenting these considerations is to defend the eminently pedagogical character of the revolution. The revolutionary leaders of every epoch who have affirmed that the oppressed must accept the struggle for their liberation - an obvious point - have also thereby implicitly recognized the pedagogical aspect of this strug­gle. Many of these leaders, however (perhaps due to natural and understandable biases against pedagogy), have ended up using the "educational" methods employed by the oppressor. They deny peda­gogical action in the liberation process, but they use propaganda to convince.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">It is essential for the oppressed to realize that when they accept the struggle for humanization they also accept, from that moment, their total responsibility for the struggle. They must realize that they are fighting not merely for freedom from hunger, but for ... freedom to create and to construct, to wonder and to ven­ture. Such freedom requires that the individual be active and responsible, not a slave or a well-fed cog in the machine. . . . It is not enough that men are not slaves; if social conditions further the existence of automatons, the result will not be love of life, but love of death.26 <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The oppressed, who have been shaped by the death-affirming cli­mate of oppression, must find through their struggle the way to life-affirming humanization, which does not lie //simply// in having more to eat (although it does involve having more to eat and cannot fail to include this aspect). The oppressed have been destroyed precisely because their situation has reduced them to things. In order to regain their humanity they must cease to be things and fight as men and women. This is a radical requirement. They cannot enter the struggle as objects in order //later// to become human beings.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">The struggle begins with men's recognition that they have been destroyed. Propaganda, management, manipulation - all arms of domination - cannot be the instruments of their rehumanization. The only effective instrument is a humanizing pedagogy in which the revolutionary leadership establishes a permanent relationship of dialogue with the oppressed. In a humanizing pedagogy the method ceases to be an instrument by which the teachers (in this instance, the revolutionary leadership) can manipulate the students (in this instance, the oppressed), because it expresses the consciousness of the students themselves. The method is, in fact, the external form of consciousness mani­fest in acts, which takes on the fundamental property of con­sciousness - its intentionality. The essence of consciousness is being with the world, and this behavior is permanent and un­avoidable. Accordingly consciousness is in essence a 'way to­wards' something apart from itself outside itself, which surrounds it and which it apprehends by means of its ideational capacity Consciousness is thus by definition a method, in the most general sense of the word.27 <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">A revolutionary leadership must accordingly practice //co-inten­tional// education. Teachers and students (leadership and people), co-intent on reality, are both Subjects, not only in the task of unveiling that reality and thereby coming to know it critically, but in the task of re-creating that knowledge. As they attain this knowledge of real­ity through common reflection and action, they discover themselves as its permanent re-creators. In this way, the presence of the oppressed in the struggle for their liberation will be what it should be: not pseudo-participation, but committed involvement.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Footnotes

 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">1 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. The current movements of rebellion, especially those of youth, while they necessarily reflect the peculiarities of their respective settings, manifest in their essence this preoccupation with people as beings in the world and with the world---preoccupation with //what// and how they are “being”. As they place consumer civiliza­tion in judgment, denounce bureaucracies of all types, demand the transformation of the universities (changing the rigid nature of the teacher-student relationship and placing that relationship within the context of reality), propose the transformation of reality itself so that universities can be renewed, attack old orders and established institutions in the attempt to affirm human beings as the Subjects of decision, all these movements reflect the style of our ~ which is more anthropological than anthropocentric.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">2 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">. As used throughout this hook, the term "contradiction denotes the dialectical conflict between opposing social forces. - Translator's note.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">3 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. This fear of freedom is also to be found in the oppressors, though obviously in a different form. The oppressed are afraid to embrace freedom; the oppressors are afraid of losing the “freedom" to oppress.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">4 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. See Hegel, op. cit., pp. 236-237.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">5 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Analyzing the dialectical relationship between the consciousness of the master and the consciousness of the oppressed, Hegel states: 'The one is independent, and its essential nature is to be for itself; the other is dependent, and its essence is life or existence for another. The former is the Master, or Lord, the latter the Bondsman" //Ibid.,// p. 234.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">8 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. "Liberating action necessarily involves a moment of perception and volition. This action both precedes and follows that moment, to which it first acts as a prologue and which it subsequently serves to effect and continue within history. The action of domination, however, does not necessarily imply this dimension; for the structure of domination is maintained by its own mechanical and unconscious functionality.” From an unpublished work by Jose Luiz Fiori, who has kindly granted permission to quote him.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">7 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, //La Sagrada Familia y otros Escritos// (Mexico, 1962), p. 6//.// Emphasis added.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">8 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Georg Lukacs, //Lenine// (Paris, 1965), p. 62.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">9 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. “The materialist doctrine that men are products of circumstances and upbringing, and that, therefore, changed men are products of other circumstances and changed upbringing, forgets that it is men that change circumstances and that the educator himself needs educating.” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, //Selected Works// (New York, 1968), p. 28.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">10 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. This appears to be the fundamental aspect of Mao’s Cultural Revo1ution.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">11 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. This rigidity should not be identified with the restraints that must be im­posed on the former oppressors so they cannot restore the oppressive order. Rather, it refers to the revolution which becomes stagnant and turns against the people, using the old repressive, bureaucratic State apparatus (which should have been drastically suppressed, as Marx so often emphasized).
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">12 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Erich Fromm, //The Heart of Man// (New York, 1966), p. 32.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">13 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Regarding the "dominant forms of social control," see Herbert Marcuse, //One-Dimensional Man// (Boston, 1964) and //Eros and Civilisation// (Boston, 1955).
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">14 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Words of a peasant during an interview with the author.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">15 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. See Candido Mendes, //Memento do vivos – A Esquerda catolica no Brasil// (Rio 1966).
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">16 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Frantz Fanon, //The Wretched of the Earth// (New York, 1968), p.52.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">17 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. //The Colonizer and the Colonized// (Boston, 1967), p. x.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">18 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Words of a peasant during an interview with the author.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">19 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. See chapter 3, p. 113 ff. - Translator's note.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">20 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. //Asentamiento// refers to a production unit of the Chilean agrarian reform experiment. – Translator’s note.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">21 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. “The peasant has an almost instinctive fear of the host" Interview with a peasant.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">22 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. See Regis Debray //Revolution// in the //Revolution?// (New York 1967).
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">23 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Interview with a peasant.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">24 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Not in the open, of course; that would only provoke the fury of the oppressor and lead to still greater repression.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">25 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. These points will be discussed at length in chapter 4.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">26 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Fromm, op. cit., pp. 52-53.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">27 **<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Alvaro Vieira Pinto, from a work in preparation on the philosophy of science. I consider the quoted portion of great importance for the understanding of a prob­lem-posing pedagogy (to be presented in chapter 2), and wish to thank Professor Vieira Pinto for permission to cite his work prior to publication.


 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Course: Philosophy and Religion **


 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">18081, Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1970, Chapter 1 **

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